The Chinese calendar is known as one of the most intricate calendar system in the world. The calendar system is required to approximate BOTH the period of the earth-sun system and the lunar period. More precisely, the Chinese calendar approximates:
The apparent period of the sun returning to the point of winter solstice (the Chinese reference point of the ecliptic coordinate system) on the ecliptic, a.k.a the tropical year (365.2421990741 mean solar days).
The period from one new moon to the next new moon, aka. the lunar month. (29.27~29.83 mean solar days, 29.530588 on average).
The mean solar day, i.e. the average period between two culminations (the moment when an imaginary sun with a fixed angular velocity on the ecliptic crossing the local meridian).
The Chinese calendar strictly requires an average month has the length of an average lunar month, and an average year has the length of a tropical year, which makes the month determination a complicated Diophantine approximation problem.
In the Chinese calendar, 24-period solar terms are identified on the ecliptic. The rules for leap-year determination heavily depends on these solar terms.
Chinese Months
How to Determine the First Day of a Month (朔)
A Chinese month can be of 29 days or 30 days. However, unlike the Gregorian Calendar, there is no obvious rule to decide whether a month is a 29-day month or a 30-day month. The length of a month is determined by astronomical observations.
The current “fixed” month-determination (定朔) method is introduced in the 17th century Chongzhen calendar (崇祯历书), designed by the Jesuits scholars Nicholas Longobardi(龙华民), Giacomo Rho(罗雅谷), Johann Schreck(邓玉函) and Johann Adam Schall von Bell(汤若望) with Chinese Xu Guangqi (徐光启), based on astronomical data collected by the European astronomers.
Definition
The astronomical new moon is the moment of the moon-sun conjunction, i.e. the exact moment when the moon and the sun have the same ecliptic longitude. The day of shuò (朔日) is defined as the mean solar day which contains the astronomical new moon.
The first day of a month is set to be the day of shuò of the current moon phase cycle.
One consequence of this method of month-determination is the lengths of the months are dependent on the time zone, which may cause the same months in China, Korea and Vietnam having different lengths. If the astronomical new moon occurs in the 1-hour interval between the midnights in China and Korea, the month will start one-day earlier in China than in Korea. For example, the 12th month of the Lunar Calendar in the year 1998-1999:
In China, the 12th month starts on January 17, 1999
In Korea, the 12th month starts on January 18, 1999
How to Name/Number the Months?
The rule of month numbering in China has changed over history. The months are named with numbers from 1 to 12. However, the 11th month is also called the winter month (冬月), and the 12th month may also be called the sacrifice month (腊月). However, in some years (usually happens 7 times every 19 years like the Hebrew and Babylonian Calendar), there may be 12 months instead of 11 months between two consecutive winter months. The years with 13 months are referred to as the leap year, and the extra month is called the leap month. The existence of leap months causes the month naming to be an extremely complex problem. Except for in those leap years,
Definition
The winter month is set as the month in which the winter solstice occurs.
Therefore, the earliest winter month may start sometime in November of the Gregorian calendar if the winter month is not a leap month. A leap winter month is theoretically possible, but may not happen until the year 2033. Leap winter months are rare and has only occurred in the 1593, 1612, 1631, 1642 recently, and will occur again in 2033, 2128 and 2147. A 30-day leap winter month is extremely rare, and if the sun-earth-moon system is stable, the next 30-day leap winter month will be the winter month of the year 6402. A leap winter month will also be called the twelfth month.
The following example uses the year 2018-2019:
Month(Days)
Gregorian Calendar of the First Day(UTC+8)
Time of the Astronomical New Moon(UTC+8)
Winter(30)
December 07, 2018
15:21
Sacrifice(30)
January 06, 2019
09:29
First(30)
February 5, 2019
05:04
Second(29)
March 7, 2019
00:05
Third(30)
April 5, 2019
16:51
Fourth(29)
May 5, 2019
06:46
Fifth(29)
June 3, 2019
18:03
Sixth(29)
July 3, 2019
03:17
Seventh(29)
August 1, 2019
11:12
Eighth(30)
August 30, 2019
18:38
Nineth(29)
September 29, 2019
02:27
Tenth(29)
October 28, 2019
11:39
Winter(30)
November 26, 2019
23:06
The Exact Times of Astronomical New Moon and the Chinese Calendar Months in 2018-2019
Chinese Years and Leap Months
Although the Chinese New Year is the first day of the first month of the Chinese calendar, a Chinese year is one full tropical year between two winter solstices.
Since the ratio of spans between one tropical year and an average lunar month is approximately 12.3683, there will be approximately 6.9977 average lunar months lost every 19 years due to the accumulation of differences between 12 lunar months and one tropical year. The Babylonian, Hebrew and Chinese calendar all have used a similar rule for leap years at some point in the history. In Europe, the time span of 19 tropical years is called the Metonic Cycle/Enneadecaeteris. Therefore, we usually need to set 7 leap months every 19 years. However, after the 17th century, instead of following the averaging method like in the Hebrew/Babylonian Calendar, the Chinese started to determine leap months completely based on astronomical observation.
Solar Terms
In order to segment a tropical year into “solar months” and make corrections to the lunar months based on the solar period, the Chinese set 24 reference points on the ecliptic called the solar terms. In China, the “point 0” of the ecliptic coordinate system is the winter solstice. A solar term is placed every 15° counter-clockwise (when observed from the north), and are used as the alternative to the Gregorian solar months.
The 24 solar terms are:
Season(China)
Western Ecliptic Longitude
Chinese Ecliptic Longitude
Solar Terms
Gregorian Dates(±1day)
Chinese Zodiac
Western Zodiac
Winter
270°
0°
Winter Solstice
Dec 22
Mouse
Capricornus
Winter
285
15
Moderate Cold
Jan 6
Ox
Capricornus
Winter
300
30
Severe Cold
Jan 20
Ox
Aquarius
Spring
315
45
Spring Commences
Feb 4
Tiger
Aquarius
Spring
330
60
Spring Showers
Feb 19
Tiger
Pisces
Spring
345
75
Insects Waken
Mar 6
Rabbit
Pisces
Spring
0
90
Vernal Equinox
Mar 21
Rabbit
Aries
Spring
15
105
Bright & Clear
Apr 5
Dragon
Aries
Spring
30
120
Corn Rain
Apr 20
Dragon
Taurus
Summer
45
135
Summer Commences
May 6
Snake
Taurus
Summer
60
150
Corn Forms
May 21
Snake
Gemini
Summer
75
165
Corn On Ear
Jun 6
Horse
Gemini
Summer
90
180
Summer Solstice
Jun 21
Horse
Cancer
Summer
105
195
Moderate Heat
Jul 7
Goat
Cancer
Summer
120
210
Great Heat
Jul 23
Goat
Leo
Autumn
135
225
Autumn Commences
Aug 8
Monkey
Leo
Autumn
150
240
End of Heat
Aug 23
Monkey
Virgo
Autumn
165
255
White Dew
Sep 8
Rooster
Virgo
Autumn
180
270
Autumn Equinox
Sep 23
Rooster
Libra
Autumn
195
285
Cold Dew
Oct 8
Dog
Libra
Autumn
210
300
Frost
Oct 23
Dog
Scorpio
Winter
225
315
Winter Commences
Nov 7
Pig
Scorpio
Winter
240
330
Light Snow
Nov 22
Pig
Sagittarius
Winter
255
345
Heavy Snow
Dec 7
Mouse
Sagittarius
24 Solar Terms on the Ecliptic
The boldfaced solar terms above are called the mid-terms (中气), and all other solar terms are called the pre-terms (节气). The mid-terms are used to determine the leap months.
Leap Months
The Chinese leap months are determined by the following three rules:
Rule 1
Leap month only exists when there are 12 full months between two winter solstices.
Rule 2
Candidates for leap months are those who don’t contain a mid-term. By contain, we mean the mid-term falls in any time of the calendar days of that month.
It is possible that a mid-term occurs before the new moon on the first day of a month, but as long as they are in the same calendar day, the day still contains the mid-term.
Rule 3
If there are multiple months who don’t contain any mid-term, set the earliest among those as the leap month.
The leap month is named after the month before the leap month. For example, in the Chinese year between 2019 and 2020, we have:
The new moon of the fourth month occurs on April 23, 2020 at 10:26.
The fourth month contains two solar terms:
Summer commences on May 05, 2020 at 08:51:16,
Corn forms on May 20, 2020 at 21:49:09, which is a mid-term.
The new moon of the month after the fourth month occurs on May 23, 2020 at 01:40.
The month after the fourth month contains only one solar term:
Corn On Ear on June 05, 2020 at 12:58:18, which is not a mid-term.
The next new moon occurs on June 21, 2020 at 14:42. It is the same day of the summer solstice, which occurs at 05:43:33. Although the summer solstice is a mid-term and occurs earlier than the new moon, since they are in the same calendar day, this summer solstice falls in the month starting from June 21, 2020 instead of the previous month.
Therefore, the month after the fourth month which starts on May 23, 2020 is a leap month, and is named as the leap fourth month of the year of mouse(庚子). The fifth month will start on June 21, 2020.
Discussions, References and Problems
Exact Times of Solar Terms and Moon Phases
The exact times of each solar term and moon phase are very important in calculating the Chinese calendars.
There also exists formulas to calculate the solar terms and the moon phases, but the moon phases are more subject to perturbations, which may cause the formulas to be inaccurate. For accurate formulas, see the book
The definition of solstices are the two points on the ecliptic such that the axis of earth has the maximum tilt away from the sun. As the axis of the earth precesses, the points of equinoxes and solstices will move accordingly on the ecliptic. The current winter and summer solstices happen to be close to the perihelion and the aphelion, respectively, of the orbit of the earth. However, it was discovered by Hipparchus of Nicaea, Zu Chongzhi(祖沖之) and many other ancient astronomers that the vernal equinox point will move 0.1″ each year towards the east on the ecliptic.
Axial Precession of a Gyroscope
The slow precession of equinoxes due to the axial precession of the earth has a very long period of around 25,772 years. The astrology book Huangji Jingshi (皇極經世) by Shao Yong (邵雍) in the 11th century covered five such periods in total (~129,600 years).
Since the current winter solstice is near the aphelion of the earth orbit, the time between two solar terms in winter will be shorter than in summer. Therefore, the mid-terms occur more frequently in the winter than in the summer, causing most of the leap months occur in the summer months of the Chinese calendar.
Interval between two mid-terms
Dates
Average Length 1810-2049
Severe cold-Spring shower
Jan 19/20-Feb 18/19
29.93
Spring shower-Vernal Equinox
Feb 18/19-Mar 20/21
30.43
Vernal Equinox-Corn Rain
Mar 20/21-Apr 19/20
30.93
Corn Rain-Corn Forms
Apr 19/20-May 20/21
31.31
Corn Forms-Summer Solstice
May 20/21-June 20/21
31.45
Summer Solstice-Great Heat
June 20/21-July 22/23
31.31
Great Heat-End Of Heat
July 22/23-Aug 22/23
30.93
End Of Heat-Autumn Equinox
Aug 22/23-Sept 22/23
30.42
Autumn Equinox-Frost
Sept 22/23-Oct 23/24
29.93
Frost-Light Snow
Oct 23/24-Nov 21/22
29.57
Light Snow-Winter Solstice
Nov 21/22-Dec 21/22
29.45
Winter Solstice-Severe Cold
Dec 21/22-Jan 19/20
29.58
Average Gap Between Mid-Terms
However, in the year 2033-2034, a rare leap 11th month will occur:
The new moon in November, 2033 occurs on November 22, 2033 at 09:40.
The new moon in December, 2033 occurs on December 22, 2033 at 02:48.
The new moon in January, 2034 occurs on January 20, 2034 at 18:03.
The new moon in February, 2034 occurs on February 19, 2034 at 07:11.
The month starting from November 22, 2033 is the winter month, with
Light snow occurring on November 22, 2033 at 08:12, which is a mid-term.
Heavy snow occurring on December 07, 2033 at 03:39.
Winter solstice on December 21, 2033 at 21:44, which is a mid-term.
The month starting from December 22, 2033 contains
Moderate cold occurring on January 05, 2034 at 15:00.
The month starting from January 20, 2034 contains
Severe cold occurring on January 20, 2034 at 08:23, which is a mid-term.
Spring commences occurring on February 04, 2034 at 02:38.
The Spring showers occurs on February 18, 2034 at 22:26, which is a mid-term.
Also, since there are 12 full months between the two winter solstices of 2033 and 2034, the month starting from December 22, 2033 will be a leap month. This will be the first leap month since 1642. The month of sacrifice of that year will start from January 20, 2034. This is called the 2033 problem of the Chinese calendars, but it’s not really a problem but simply a special year which needs to be treated carefully.
It is rare that the winter month, month of sacrifice and the first month are leap months. The two most recent leap first months are the year 1651 and 2262, and the first-ever leap month of sacrifice will be in the year 3358.
The Manchus, Mongols, and Tibetans are three special ethnic groups in China with a developed language for modern use, a high education standard, and influential political powers in modern China. They have a long history of interaction with the ethnic Chinese people, and frequent genetic and linguistic exchanges during the past two millennials. All of these three ethnic groups played an important role in shaping modern China.
This blog article summarizes the recent history of Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet, as well as their interactions with the “mainstream Chinese”. In this article, you will be able to grasp the full picture of the Chinese Tartary and Tibet before the 19th century, maybe for the first time in your life.
The First Tungusic Empire in China
The Da-Jin (大金国, “great golden empire”) was established in the year 1115 by Wanggiyan Aguda, a tribal leader of the Jurchen people from the present-day Manchuria and Russian Far East. The Jurchen Da-Jin empire existed in parallel with the “legitimate” Chinese empire, Da-Song (大宋), which was occupying most parts of Southern China until 1234. The Jurchen people are a group of Tungusic-speaking tribes that resided in the region between the Amur River and the Songhua/Songgari River.
Da-Jin in the Jurchen script /amba-an antʃu-un/
The Jurchen army of the Da-Jin Empire defeated the Khitan Empire (related to the modern Daur people of China) and inherited most of the Chinese lands between the ancient Great Wall and the geographic north-south border formed by the Qinling Mountains and the Huaihe River. The Da-Jin Empire frequently changed its positions between making peace and fighting against the Da-Song Empire in the south intermittently. In 1126, the army of the Da-Jin Empire captured the capital city Kaifeng of the Da-Song Empire and held the Emperor Huizong and Qinzong of the Da-Song Empire captive together with thousands of members of the royal family. The remaining members of the royal family of Da-Song managed to escape to the south and settled in Hangzhou, and subsequently ruled Southern China until finally defeated by the Mongols.
Map of the Jurchen Da-Jin Empire
The organization of the government of the Da-Jin Empire is a combination of the traditional law of the Jurchen people and a Chinese Confucius-style government. A script inspired by the Chinese and the Khitan script was invented to write the Jurchen language down, which is still studied by scholars today.
Mongolian Control of China
The Mongol tribes in the Mongolian highlands were unified by Temüjin (the Genghis Khan) from the Borjigin family of the Khiyad tribe. They invaded various nations in Central Asia and Western China. The first Mongol invasion of the Da-Jin Empire took place in 1211 and forced the Da-Jin Empire to abandon its western capital.
Persian-style painting on the Battle of Yehuling between Jurchen and Mongol
In the following years, the Mongols advanced towards the east and occupied most of the territories of the Da-Jin Empire. The Mongols raided the whole Central China Plain (华北平原) between the years 1213 and 1214 and later forced the Jurchens to become a tributary state of the Mongol Empire after the Mongols besieged their central capital (中京大定府) in 1214. The Mongols slowly devoured most of the territories controlled by the Jurchens. In the year 1227, upon the death of the Genghis Khan, most of the lands north of the Yellow River in the modern Hebei, Shanxi, and Shandong provinces of China were under Mongolian control.
Meanwhile, the Mongolian forces slowly absorbed many defectors from the Khitan and Da-Song Empire, and an alliance was made between the Mongolian army led by Tolui and Ögedei Khan, and the Chinese army of the Da-Song Empire in order to eradicate the remaining forces of the Jurchens, which is their common enemy, between the Yellow River and the Huaihe River. The Jurchen Empire finally came to an end on February 9th of 1234.
Timeline of Mongol Conquest of the Jurchen Jin
However, the alliance between the Chinese and the Mongols turned out to be a success and failure for the Chinese at the same time. Möngke Khan, the oldest son of Tolui, became the 4th Khagan of the Mongolian Empire. His army invaded Korea and Yunnan in 1254 and controlled Central Tibet in 1252-1253. Möngke’s army managed to surround Da-Song in southern China from the north, west, and southwest. The Mongols finally controlled the whole of Southern China after three waves of offensives led by Ögedei, Möngke, and Kublai. Kublai Khan, the 5th Khagan of the Mongol Empire, declared himself the Emperor of China and the Mongolian Empire on December 18, 1271. The Chinese name for the Chinese-Mongolian Empire is Da-Yuan (大元), which was taken from the famous Chinese philosophy book I Ching.
Kublai Khan’s Decree Declaring Himself the Emperor of China
The capital of the Da-Yuan Empire overlaps with the northern part of the inner city of Beijing. The sites of the royal palaces are still used by the Qing Dynasty and the modern-day Government of the People’s Republic of China.
The Mongols only ruled China for 97 years but left a great cultural heritage to China:
Mongolian, together with Chinese, became a de facto lingua franca in the region north of the Great Wall.
The Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan and Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür, organized the mass translation of the most influential Chinese books to Mongolian.
Formed the modern contour of the provinces of China.
Created the first alphabet-based system for the Chinese language: the ʼPhags-pa script. The phonology of the Chinese language was systematically studied with the Indo-Tibetan linguistic framework śabdavidyā (声明).
A ‘Phags-pa Chinese pronunciation book covering syllables from /lim/ to /tsim/
A comparison of the ‘Phags-pa, Rañjanā, Tibetan, Mongol, Chinese and Cyrillic Syllables
The Mongol Empire collapsed due to economic failure, natural disasters, the Black Deaths, and the rise of the Chinese opposition forces. The White Lotus Sect, a crypto-religion originated from a mixture of the belief of Maitreya and Manichaeism and started to organize revolts against the Mongols. In 1368, Beijing was captured by the Red Turban forces (红巾军). The Mongols retreated to Xanadu and the Mongolian Highland, and were finally defeated by the new Chinese Empire, the Ming Empire, at the Buir Lake in Mongolia in 1388.
Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür The Last Ruler of the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty and the Mongol Tribes
After the last Khagan, the Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür, was murdered by Yesüder(?), Jorightu Khan, who might be Yesüder himself and is a descendant of Ariq Böke(?), the Mongol Empire disintegrated again into smaller tribes, as in the time before Genghis Khan.
The Mongol States After the Fall of the Yuan Empire
However, there is still a de jure ruler of all the Mongol states from the House of Borjigin. The Dayan Khan Batumöngke and his queen Mandukhai Khatun reunited the eastern Mongolian tribes, which are collectively referred to as “the Tartars” by the Chinese. The four major western tribes, Choros, Torghut, Dorbet, and Khoid, collectively called “the Oirat confederation” and were mostly located in the present-day Xinjiang, was demanded to accept the supremacy of the Emperor of China in 1409. They rejected this demand and upheld their rivalry with the Ming Empire. The Oirats conducted regular raids in northern China. Their chief, Esen (也先太师), even captured the Emperor Yingzong of the Ming Empire in 1449 and besieged Beijing in October. The Oirats later conquered most of the inner and outer Mongolian tribes, and even the Jurchen tribes (the same tribe which established the Da-Jin Empire) in northeastern China.
The Tartars in the east, especially the Tumed tribe living in the Baotou-Hohhot region of Inner Mongolia, under the counseling of Zhao Quan (赵全) and many other Chinese defectors from Shanxi (the Jin-Chinese speakers, the word “Jin” is the historical name of the Shanxi province) and the Hetao Region along the Yellow River, had experienced a significant economic and population growth. The alliance between the Shanxi Chinese and the Mongols still persists today, and they constituted to the main population of Chinese Inner Mongolia. Most of these Chinese emigrants have White Lotus backgrounds. These Jin-Chinese villages are called “baishin (板升)”, which is the Mongolian word for “house” (байшин). See the article in Chinese “寇邊”與“勾結” — — 對俺答時期土默特與朔方兩方精英合作問題相關的研究
The Hetao Region along the Yellow River
The Jin-Chinese speakers in Inner Mongolia
The Altan Khan Anda, of the Tumed tribe, became the de facto leader of Eastern Mongolia in 1542. He led a few major raids on the Northern Chinese Plains and even besieged Beijing again in 1550 and burned down its suburbs. However, in 1570, Baya-Naci (把汉纳吉), the grandson of Altan Khan, fled to the Ming Empire, forcing the Altan Khan to finally sign a peace treaty with the Longqing Emperor of the Ming Empire.
The Eastern Mongolia under the Altan Khan’s control in 1571
The Altan Khan was granted the title “Prince Shunyi” from the Ming Emperor, and later conquered the Oirats, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyzs tribes in the west.
Altan Khan and the Start of Tibetan Buddhism Among Mongols
The word “dalai” in the title Dalai Lama (tā la’i bla ma in Tibetan, dalaiin khan in Mongolian) means “ocean” in Mongolic languages.
It is not known whether the Ming Empire had any effective control over the Tibetan Plateau. However, the Emperor of the Ming Empire was known to have granted the religious and civil leaders of Tibet their titles and authority over the Tibetan people.
The Altan Khan became interested in the Tibetan Buddhism of the Gelug order under the influence of the Ming central court. The Emperor of Ming offered the Altan Khan scriptures, monks, and translations of Buddhist manuscripts.
The Altan Khan invited the Gelug Buddhism leader, Sonam Gyatso (bsod nams rgya mtsho) to Tümed in 1569, and his invitation was accepted in the year 1577. Later, the Altan Khan built the Erdene Zuu Monastery (光显寺) for the Gelug order in Karakorum in 1586. The title “Dalai Lama” was created by the Altan Khan for Sonam Gyatso, allowing him to “reincarnate” after he passes away. Sonam Gyatso traced his lineage of succession to Gedun Drupa (dge ‘dun grub pa) who was born in the year 1391. Under the influence of Sonam Gyatso, the whole Tümed tribe began to follow Gelug Buddhism, which became the main source of spiritual support among the Mongols till today.
Invited by the Ming Emperor, Sonam Gyatso traveled to Beijing but was never able to return: he died of some unknown contagious disease and passed away in 1588. The great-grandson of the Altan Khan, Yonten Gyatso (yon tan rgya mtsho), was found to be the “reincarnation” of Sonam Gyatso and became the 4th Dalai Lama. He was the only non-Tibetan Dalai Lama in history.
The Rise of Jurchens/Manchus
Since the reign of the Yongle Emperor of Ming, military commanderies were founded in Manchuria, in which Jurchen soldiers were recruited to defend the eastern border of the Ming Empire against the Mongols. Three major tribes of Jurchens were identified by the Ming Empire: Jianzhou in the nowadays Jilin Province, Haixi in the Heilongjiang Province and the “Wild Jurchens” in the Russian Far East. In the Yongle period, 178 commanderies were set up in Manchuria, as well as many house markets and trading centers. In 1409, the Nurgan Command Post was established in a Nivkh village, the nowadays Tyr of Russia. In a series of expeditions from 1411 to 1433 to the Amur River and Songgari River, a Jurchen eunuch Išiha (亦失哈) led a fleet down the rivers to win the devotion of the Jurchen tribes. A stele was erected in the Yongning Temple (永宁寺) in Tyr, Khabarovsk Krai, commemorating this expedition.
The Yongning Temple Steles on display at the Arseniev State Museum, Vladivostok
Jurchen Tribes in the Late 16th Century
Mengtemu (aka. Möngke Temür) of the House of Aisin Gioro, the leader of the Odoli tribe of the Jurchens, migrated to the Tumen River basin, and later moved to the Hoifa River fearing the Korean threats. To seek protection, he visited Beijing in 1426 and was promoted to the rank of assistant commissioner by the Ming court. The House of Aisin Gioro served as the Jianzhou Left Guard by the Tumen River until Nurgaci unified the Jurchen tribes and revolted against the Ming Empire over a 30 year period from 1586. See this link for a list of Jurchen chieftains who served the Ming court.
The Abkai Fulingga Khan Nurgaci
In 1599, Nurgaci summoned his translators, Erdeni Baksi and Dahai Jargūci, to create a new Jurchen script based on the Mongolian script. He declared himself the Khan of the Aisin Gurun (“golden empire”) in 1616 and constructed a palace in Mukden (沈阳). He also created a new socio-ethnic group, the Manchus, from his fellow Jurchens, some Chinese, and Mongols. He organized the Manchus into the famous Eight Banners. Some Manchu clans were merged and new family names were created, to fit all the Manchus from different backgrounds into his new Eight Banners system.
The main opponents Nurgaci is the coalition of 9 tribes: Hada, Ula, Hoifa, Khorchin Mongols, Sibe, Guwalca, Jušeri, Neyen, and Yehe. The coalition was led by the House of Nara in the Yehe tribes. The last tribe besides Yehe, Ula, was incorporated into Nurgaci’s army in 1613. Nurgaci started to challenge the authority of the Ming court in 1618 by publishing a document entitled The Seven Grievances, combined with military actions against the posts of Ming Empire in Manchuria. The Yehe tribe joined the Ming Empire against Nurgaci and was finally defeated in 1619.
The transition from the Ming to the new Manchu Empire, the daicing gurun, was a complex process. The Manchus were able to absorb the Chinese defectors from both sides of the Great Wall and eventually allied with the Khorchin Mongols against the two other eastern Mongol tribes, the Khalkha and Chahars. The successor of Nurgaci, Hong Taiji, managed to circumvent the Great Wall from its central and western entry points through the lands of the Mongol tribes. He also led expeditions against the Chahars and defeated them in 1634. The leader, Ligdan Khan of the Chahars, surrendered to Hong Taiji and offered him the Great Seal of China (传国玺), which was believed by the Mongols to be the Heirloom Seal of the Realm disappeared around the 10th century. The Heirloom Seal of the Realm was considered as a sacred heraldry by the Chinese people, and only the Emperor over the whole Chinese land have the right to possess the seal.
Abkai Sure Khan Hong Taiji Emperor of Daicing Gurun/China
Upon receiving the seal, the Khan of the Manchus, Hong Taiji named himself the Emperor of China, portrayed himself as the heir of the Chinese Son-of-Heaven since Qin-Shi-Huang, and claimed the Chinese throne in the year 1636. The Manchus defeated the Chinese peasant forces and entered Beijing in the year 1644.
Mongols and Tibet in the Manchu Empire
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Mongols were loosely organized as the Oirat Mongols in the west, the Khalkh Mongols in nowadays Mongolia, and the eastern Mongolian tribes from the Yellow River to Manchuria.
Since the beginning of the Ming Empire, Tibet was ruled by the Kagyu order of Tibetan Buddhism, whose leader was entitled Karma-pa and was responsible for all the religious and civil affairs of Tibet. The 5th Karma-pa, Deshin Shekpa, was honored as the guru of the Emperor Chengzu of Ming.
5th Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso
Before the Manchu conquest of China, the Kagyu order of Tibetan Buddhism and the Khalha Mongols tried to remove the Gelug Buddhists from the Tibetan Plateau. To defend themselves, the Gelug leaders, 4th Panchen Erdene Lobsang Chogyi Gyamtsen, and 5th Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso asked the Koshut Oirat prince, Güshi Khan, to intervene. Güshi Khan also contacted Hong Taiji and promised his submission to the Manchus, in order not to be attacked by the allies of the Khalhas from the east. Interestingly, the name Güshi is Chinese, meaning the “teacher of the empire”.
In 1636, in the company of the Dzungar prince Erdeni Batur, Güshi Khan marched into the Amdo region of the Tibetan Plateau to confront the Choghtu Khung Tayiji of the Khalkh Mongols. After a bloody battle, the Khalkhs were defeated and Choghtu was killed on the spot.
Later in 1638, Güshi met with the 5th Dalai Lama in Lhasa, and was named the Khagan of the Mongols. In return, Güshi conquered Lhasa in 1642, and replaced the supreme leader of Tibet from Karma-pa of the Kagyu order to the Dalai Lama of the Gelug order. The 5th Dalai Lama confirmed Güshi as the chogyal (king) of Tibet. In the new political system, the Dalai Lama has all the civil and religious power over all Tibet from Dartsedo to Ladakh, while the military forces follow the order of the Khan.
The Manchu conquest of China changed the fate of the Mongols and the Tibetans. The royal family of the Manchu Empire, as well as most of the noble families, are proficient in Mongolian. The Emperor of Daicing Empire was honored as the Khan of the Mongolian people.
The Manchus quickly absorbed the east Mongol tribes into their military forces: the Kolchins and Qarachins were absorbed into the Eight Banners, while other Mongol tribes were organized into “banners” and settled on designated regions of lands, which is still the major administrative subdivision of today’s Inner Mongolia. A government entity, the tulergi golo-be dasara jurgan (理藩院), was created to handle affairs of the eastern Mongol banners.
The Dzungars and the Russians
After the Manchu conquest of the Chahar Mongols in 1635, the Khalkh Mongols decided to pay tribute to the Manchus. However, except for the Khoshut Oirats, many other Oirat Mongols and Khalkh Mongols did not surrender to the Manchus until the 18th century. The main drive of the Khalkh-Oirat alliance with the Manchus is the attempt of the Dzungars, in the nowadays Xinjiang, to unify the Mongol tribes in the west.
In the early 17th century, the Russians began to enter the Central Asia. The Russian city Tyumen was opened to the Dzungars for tradings. Dzungars soon became the most powerful force among all the Oirat tribes, and due to a complex 4 player game between the Russians, Dzungars, Khalkhs, and Manchus, the leader of the Dzungars, the Galdan Boshugtu Khan, started a war against the Khalkhs in 1688, and formed an apparent alliance with the Russian forces.
However, the Russians also entered the Amur basin and attacked the local Manchu forces since 1640. The Manchus attacked a Russian fort in Albazino, also known as Yaksa in Manchu. The Russians were almost removed from the Amur River basin by 1685.
Siege of Albazino by the Manchus
Fyodor Golovin, an Russian envoy, was sent to meet the Manchus in Selenginsk in 1688. The plan of the meeting was affected by the Dzungar offensive to the Khalkh Mongol, which located between Selenginsk and Beijing. The Kangxi Emperor and Golovin agreed to move the meeting to Nerchinsk (in Manchu nibcoo). The meeting took place in 1689, the Manchus sent Songgotu, Jean-Francois Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira as their representatives, and signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Fyodor Golovin. The treaty defined the border between the Russian-controlled area and the Manchu Empire.
The Amur River Basin and Russian Outposts in Siberia
Meanwhile, the Dzungars were steadily advancing east. Hundreds of thousands of Khalkh civilians escaped to the south under the Dzungar attack. The Gelug leader of the Khalkhs, Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, and the Khalkh leaders expressed their wishes to the Kangxi Emperor to subordinate to the Manchu Empire.
Dzungars and Manchus
While the Galdan Khan was fighting the Manchus in the east, his nephew, Tsewang Rabtan, rebelled against Galdan and cut off Galdan’s supply line. Galdan had to loot the Khalkh tribes in order to collect supplies, and denied the Manchu’s suggestion to make peace with the Khalkhs.
In 1690, the Kangxi Emperor and two of his princes fought the Galdan troops at Ulaanbutan. Galdan was defeated but successfully retreated back to his base. The Kangxi Emperor organized two more expeditions against the remainders of the Galdan forces in 1695 and 1697, exhausted the Galdan’s force and captured his son.
Manchu Troops Camping along the Kherlen River
The Dzungars After Galdan and the Genocide
After the death of Galdan, his successor, Cewang Rabtan, advanced southwards and controlled the Muslim cities Kashgar, Turpan, Qarasheher Illi and Yarkant, and invaded Tibet via those cities. In October 1718, the Kangxi Emperor sent his 14th son, Yūn Ti, to remove the Dzungar forces from Tibet. Since then, the Manchus and the central Daicing court started to send Imperial Residents to Lhasa, as well as Manchu-Chinese troops to Tibet. Battles between Dzungar and Daicing continued intermittently until 1734.
In 1745, a plague struck Dzungar, Dawachi, supported by Amursana, was named as the Khagan of the Dzungars. However, Amursana and Dawachi later began to compete for the throne. Amursana, later became a prince of Daicing Empire, traveled to Beijing and requested the Qianlong Emperor to eradicate the Dawachi forces. Dawachi was later defeated and the Daicing troops entered Ili in 1755. But most of the Manchu troops were sent back to China.
Daicing Troops Entering Ili
Paintings of General Ayusi by Giuseppe Castiglione
Between 1756 and 1759, Amursana rebelled against the Manchus. General Jaohūi was believed to be ordered by the Qianlong Emperor to kill all the Dzungars so that none of them will start a war again. Most of the surrendered Dzungars were incorporated into the Manchu Eight Banners.
Jaohūi defeating the Amursana forces
The vacuum caused by the Dzungar genocide was later filled in by Turkic language tribes.
Tibet After the Dzungars and the Qianlong Emperor
In 1747, Prince (conferred by the Daicing Emperor) Gyurme Namgyal revolted against the Daicing Imperial Resident in Lhasa and the 7th Dalai Lama and controlled the Ngari region of Tibet. However, Gyurme Namgyal was dramatically killed by the Imperial Resident Fucing and Labdun with a sword in the Governor’s office. Later, the Qianlong Emperor sent General Ts῾ereng to finish the remaining supporters of Gyurme Namgyal.
The Qianlong Emperor in Ceremonial Armour on Horseback by Giuseppe Castiglione
In 1751, the Qianlong Emperor approved the 13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (酌定西藏善后章程十三条), abolished all prince titles in Tibet. The Imperial Resident will directly cooperate with Panchen Erdene and Dalai Lama. A new governor’s office, Kashag (bkaʼ-shag), was setup by the new ordinance, which created a stable balance between the monasteries, the Kashag, and the Imperial Resident. Later, after Sino-Nepalease War, in 1793, the Qianlong Emperor approved another 29-article ordinance, to give more powers to the Kashag office. The Kashag follows the order of the Imperial Resident and the monasteries. The Tibetan-speaking area of China was organized into three regions:
Ü-tsang, the mainstream Tibet excluding the Ngari Region.
Amdo, lying between Qinghai, Gansu and Sichuan.
Kham, mostly the western part of Sichuan.
The modern days Ladakh and Baltistan are considered as a part of the Ngari Region, also under the control of the Kashag governor in Lhasa.
The Tibetan-Speaking China
The Qianlong Emperor also defined the modern process of appointing the new religious leaders. The religious leaders of the Tibetan Buddhism is referred to as Khutuktu as in Mongolian. Among all the Khutuktus,
Dalai Lama and Panchen Erdene are the leaders of Tibet.
Changkya Khutukhtu as the leader of the Inner Mongolia.
Jebtsundamba Khutuktu as the leader of the Khalkh Mongol.
There are also other major Khutuktus of Tibet and Mongolia. Most are required to live in Beijing.
According to the Qianlong Emperor, the new Khutuktus have to be appointed by drawing lots from a golden urn in the Yonghe Palace of Beijing. Qianlong Emperor also wrote an article The Discourse of Lama in Chinese, Mongolian, Manchu and Tibetan, to explain his purpose of such policies. He also criticized the mystic belief system of the “reincarnation” of Khutuktus, and explained that the lot-drawing procedure reduces the possibility of corruption and separatism. This article was engraved on two steles in the Yonghe Palace, the Royal Tibetan Buddhism temple in Beijing.
The Discourse of Lama
The Golden Urn
Memorial to the throne on notifying the Mongols and Tibetans about the Khutuktu selection procedure
The Plaque Above the Entrance of the Yonghe Palace Mongol: nairalt nairamduu suum Tibetan: dga’ ldan byin chags gling Chinese: Yōnghé gōng Manchu: hūwaliyasun hūwaliyaka gung
A transliteration system between Sanskrit, Tibetan, Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese designed by the 4th Changkya Khutuktu: Rölpé Dorjé
A 4 language book of Buddhist Mantra
A Dismounting Stele in Chinese, Manchu, Mongolian, Tibetan, Todo Mongolian and Chagatai at the Imperial Academy of Beijing Chinese：官员人等至此下马 Manchu: geren hafan irgen ubade morin ci ebu Mongol: Олон түшмэд ба хамонн иргэн үүн ву морноос бах ᠣᠯᠠᠨ ᠲᠦᠰᠢᠮᠠᠣᠨ ᠪᠡ ᠬᠠᠮᠣᠠᠨ ᠢᠷᠭᠡᠨ ᠡᠭᠦᠨ ᠸᠣ ᠮᠣᠷᠢᠨ ᠡᠴᠠ ᠪᠡᠬᠣ Tibetan: b.lor po mang ma ranams dang ‘bangs dmangs thams cad ‘di la rata las bob nyig བལོར་པོ་མང་མ་རནམས་དང་འབངས་དམངས་ཐམས་ཅད་འདི་ལ་རཏ་ལས་བོབ་ཉིག། Chagatai: barqe mensepdar laʿini bu yerde attin qüx Todo: ᠣᠯᠠᠨ ᠲᠦᠰᠢᠮᠠᠣᠨ ᠪᠡ ᠬᠠᠮᠣᠠᠨ ᠢᠷᠭᠡᠨ ᠡᠭᠦᠨ ᠸᠣᠷ ᠮᠣᠷᠢᠨ ᠡᠴᠠ ᠪᠡᠬᠣ᠈
Son of man, set thy face against Gog, the land of Magog, the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal, and prophesy against him, and say, Thus saith the Lord GOD; Behold, I am against thee, O Gog, the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal: and I will turn thee back, and put hooks into thy jaws, and I will bring thee forth, and all thine army, horses and horsemen, all of them clothed with all sorts of armour, even a great company with bucklers and shields, all of them handling swords: Persia, Ethiopia, and Libya with them; all of them with shield and helmet…
Ezekiel 38:2-5
The first time ever, this information has been made available in English. It is one of the most dangerous moments in the history of human beings. The coronavirus is plaguing the world, while the dark powers are preparing to take over the world and implement their New World Order, which was a protracted plan drafted centuries ago. As a Chinese, an honored Christian and a responsible man worrying about the fate of freedom and the human race, it is a good time to speak out.
This article contains a very detailed explanation of the real origin of COVID-19. In case you don’t have enough time to finish the full article, I will simply summarize all you have to know about what is really behind this virus here:
COVID-19 is the creation of the largest Freemasonry branch in the world, which is widely known as the Chinese Communist Party.
COVID-19 is a part of the prolonged plan of establishing the New World Order and expedite the process in the early 21st Century.
The Chinese Communist Party was not established in 1949, nor in 1921. It was established earlier than the year 1368.
All Chinese-speaking territories, including China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan, are completely controlled by the Freemasonry and they are all under the command of the New Order in East Asia.
All of the above facts are encoded in the Chinese language and were taught directly or indirectly in the education system of China. This is the reason why they are completely new to the English-speaking world.
History of the Light Worshippers in China
Concepts
In him was life; and the life was the light of men.
John 1:4
The main concepts of light worshippers include the following elements:
The God (Aramaic ܐܒܐ ܕܪܒܘܬܐAbbā dəRabbūṯā, in Hebrew letters אבא דרבותא), known as 神 (shén) in Chinese and אל (el) in Hebrew.
The light (Aramaic נהר/נהרא, nahur/nuhra), carrying the news, information or in Hebrew the מודיעין (modi’in) to its receivers. In the present time, the major forms of light are the sun, the moon, and fire. The receivers are called “the hearers”, in Aramaic ܫܡܘܥܐ (shamo’e), or in Hebrew letters שמועא, or 耨沙喭 in Chinese.
Humans, humans are living in the darkness (ܚܫܟ, חשוך). Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came. The whole process is calledܐܣܛܘܢ ܫܘܒܚܐ(esṭun šuvḥā) in Aramaic, 蘇露沙羅夷 after its translation in Persian, or in Hebrew letters אסטון שובחא.
The goal of the light worshippers, ܡܫܡܫܢܐ (meshammeshane) in Aramaic, written as משמשנא in Hebrew letters, related to the root ש–מ–ש (to serve), in Chinese called the 阿羅緩(āluóhuǎn) or the 電那勿(diànnàwù), is to gradually make the human start the process of “returning to the world of light”.
The COVID-19 disease, more correctly, the CoV-2 nano-robot, is the tool for the light worshippers to make us step into the world of light, and to achieve the so-called Spiritus Potens.
The Ming Dynasty and the Manichaeism
Let there be light, and there was light.
ויאמר אלהים יהי אור ויהי־אור
Genesis 1:3
As we all know, the ancient history of China can be segmented into different dynasties. Among all the dynasties, the Ming (明) dynasty is the most important one in our context: it is the first empire established by the ancient order of the Freemasonry and is the precursor of the Chinese Communist Party.
The oldest regalia of the Chinese empires is the Heirloom Seal of the Realm (传国玉玺 chuán-guó yù-xǐ), which was a seal made from an ancient jade called Heshibi (和氏璧 hé-shì-bì) by the first emperor Qín Shǐ-Huáng the Great of China in 221 BCE.
The Heirloom Seal of the Realm
The seal symbolizes the legitimacy of the rulers of China and has been handed down by all the royal families of China until the Mongol Conquest in the 13th century. The seal was lost in the court of the Mongolian Khans. During the rule of the Mongols, a completely new power started to nurture and later became the dominator of China: the Persian mysticism, Manichaeism and the worship of light. Despite the seal being lost in the war, the worshippers of the lights attempted to restore, or more precisely, to usurp the power of China.
The Manichaeism was created by the Persian prophet Mani (Syriac: ܡܐܢܝ ܚܝܐ in Hebrew letters מאני חייא, lit. “Living Mani”, Greek Μανιχαῖος also Μάνης) in Ctesiphon, combining the Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Buddhism. The religion features the worship of light against the darkness.
Four prophets of the Manichaeism: Mani, Zoroastrian, Śākyamuni the Buddha, and Jesus the Messiah
The devotees of the Manichaeism constitute a major force in the uprising against the Mongols led by Zhū Yuán-Zhāng (朱元璋). The motto of the revolting militants is:
弥勒降生，明王下世
The Maitreya was born, and the ruler of light has came to earth.
The birth of the Buddha Maitreya (Devanagari: मैत्रेय) symbolizes the end of the current world and is cognate to the Hebrew word משיח (Mashiach) for the final Messiah through Aramaic. The militants finally overthrew the Mongol Empire in the year 1368 and named their new dynasty after the Chinese word for light: Ming (明).
The Ancient Chinese script Ming 明 with a sun on its left and a moon on the right
The Chinese character Ming (明), according to the ancient symbolism, consists of a symbol 日(rì) for the sun on the left and a symbol 月(yùe) for the moon on the right. The choice of its name indicates the theme of worship in the new Chinese empire: the sun and the moon that illuminate the world. They will embrace the final coming of the Messiah and a new order in the Chinese territories.
Meanwhile, another sect of the light worshippers, the Rosicrucians, was being established in Europe. According to the book Fama Fraternitatis RC (The Fame of the Brotherhood of RC) published in 1614, Christian Rosenkreuz from the Thuringian Forest on the border of Hessen is the founder of the Rosicrucians, who was a sage that discovered the ancient wisdom during his pilgrimage to the Middle East under the Muslim rule. He was born in 1378, 10 years after the establishment of the Ming dynasty in China, and lived 106 years. The first gathering of the Rosicrucians, according to historians, occurred around 1407. During his pilgrimage, he also lived among the worshippers of light in the Middle East and then brought the beliefs and rituals back to Europe, where he later established the order Rosicrucians.
The 14th century is an interesting time: from the Middle East and the Persian highlands, the same mystical belief was discovered at the same time by both the Chinese and the Europeans and was then brought separately back to their homelands.
The members of the Rosicrucian Order later established the Freemasonry in the 18th century and participated actively in the creation of the modern world: the French Revolution, the establishment of the United States, the World Wars and the birth of the State of Israel. Western readers are familiar with their story and I will focus on the Chinese side of the story in the later sections.
The Manchu Conquest and the Chinese Secret Societies
For the worshippers of light, their life in China was not easy. A non-Chinese tribe (which I personally belong to) speaking the Tungusic languages called the Manchus or the Jurchens, due to years of famine and poor living conditions started their insurgence in Manchuria and later overthrew the Ming dynasty. The Manchus are worshippers of the sky and the eagle, and they named their new dynasty Daicing gurun
The name of the Manchu dynasty in both Chines and Manchu
which means the nation of archers and in Chinese, they chose the word 清 (qīng) which means clearness (of water or sky) as the name of their dynasty. During the rulings of the Manchus, the activities of the light worshippers have to turn underground. More secret societies have been established: the Society of White Lotus (白莲教 Bái-lián jiào) and its descendants.
the Society of White Lotus burning incense and worshipping the lotus which symbolizes fire and light.
The members of the Society of White Lotus was suppressed heavily by the Manchus. According to the Penal Code of the Daicing Empire (大清律例 dà-qīng lù-lì, in Manchu Daicing gurun i fafun i bithe kooli)：
…all societies calling themselves at random White Lotus, communities of the Buddha Maitreya, or the Mingtsung religion (Manichaeans), or the school of the White Cloud, etc., together with all who carry out deviant and heretical practices, or who in secret places have prints and images, gather the people by burning incense, meeting at night and dispersing by day, thus stirring up and misleading people under the pretext of cultivating virtue, shall be sentenced (to exile).
Many of the first Europeans who visited or conducted business in China belong to the Freemasonry or the Rosicrucian Order. The Swedish Freemasonry, 7 members of the Lodge Salomon in Gothenburg employed by the Swedish East India Company, started their first gatherings in Guangzhou, China in the year 1758. Later, members of the Lodge of Amity in England also started their meetings in Guangzhou. Contacts with the local secret societies of the worshippers of lights were not documented, however, all we knew is it eventually lead to the collapse of the Manchu dynasty and the restoration of the rule by the light worshippers of China. The first joint military campaign against the Manchu Empire was the First Opium War in 1840, which lead to the final destruction of the Manchu Empire.
In 1844, right after the seize of Hong Kong Island near Guangzhou from the Manchu Empire, a brethren of the United Grand Lodge of England, formed the Royal Sussex Lodge No. 735 on the Hong Kong Island. The formation of the new lodge is an important milestone in the expansion of the power of the light worshippers in China.
Soon, more secret anti-Manchu societies were established in China, including the Hung Society (洪门 hóng mén) aka. The Society of Heaven and Earth (天地会 tiān dì huì), the Elders Brothers Society (袍哥会 páo-gē huì) and the Green Gang (青帮 qīng bāng). These societies are directly aided by their European comrades in the Freemasonry and the Rosicrucian Order. The Hung society later expanded to Europe and North America, started to recruit secret soldiers, purchasing weapons and attempted to overthrow the Qing dynasty.
Seal of the Hung Society. Pay attention to the trapezoid symbol shape in the middle
The All-Seeing Eye. Compare with the symbol above.
In 1911, the Manchu Empire was officially ended by Dr. Sun Yat-Sen and other members of the Hung Society. Dr. Sun Yat-Sen was also a member of the Freemasonry but his affiliation hasn’t be released by the Freemasonry.
革命（辛亥革命）之成，实种于二百年于前之洪门会党
The seed of the success of the revolution was planted 200 years ago by the establishment of the Hung Society.
在运动之初，惟洪门兄弟能守秘密。发动之后，亦惟洪门兄弟能听指挥。
In the beginning of our movement, only the brethrens of the Hung Society are capable of keeping secrets. After the movement started, only the brethrens are following the orders.
No matter how far we are, how dangerous the situation is, every one of us is showing his bravery and is willing to lead the assault. Eventually we started the Wuchang Uprising and was rejoined by each provinces. After a few months we established our republic, and the achievements of our army are in fact the achievements of our brethrens.
谭人凤《社团改进会意见书》
Tán Rén-Fèng, Thoughts on the improvements of our group
One very important fact to remember: the revolution of China started in the city of Wuhan, where the COVID-19 outbreak first started.
The flags of the new Republic of China indicated the relations between the leaders of the new republic and the worshippers of light:
The first flag: the 18-sided star of the Wuhan Uprising
The flag of the Kuomintang Party, which later became the national flag of the Republic of China
The Establishment of the Chinese Communist Party and the People’s Republic of China
However, after the establishment of the Republic of China, the secret societies of the light worshippers lost their confidentiality. It started to be infiltrated by the servants of the Manchu Empire, the atheists, the communists, and the royalists. After the establishment of the Soviet Union, fearing that the communist movement will storm China, in 1921, the secret societies of light worshippers in China decided to create a “camouflage party” and named it the Chinese Communist Party.Important to remember: the name of the Chinese Communist Party is a camouflage to protect it from the infiltration of the real communists. Whenever a communist joins the Chinese Communist Party, they will end up being purged later in the political movements.
Meanwhile, to protect the mainstream Hung Society free from the infiltration of the communists, the core members of the Hung Society formed the Hung Society Zhigong Hall in San Francisco which later joined the political movement lead by the Chinese Communist Party.
Proclamation of the People’s Republic of China, 1 October 1949. Left: Situ Meitang, the leader of the Hung Society, Right: Mao Ze-dong, the leader of the Chinese Communist Party
In 1949, three highly related groups of the light worshippers, the Freemasonry, the Hung Society, and the Chinese Communist Party successfully defeated the royalists of China, Japan, and Chiang Kai-Shek, the leader of the Kuomintang Party and an ally of the royalists, and established the People’s Republic of China.
The symbol of Freemasonry in the emblem of the People’s Republic of China
The city gate appeared in the emblem of the People’s Republic of China is the Tiān-ān-mén (天安门), literally means “the Gate of Peace in Heaven”. The gate was built by theemperors of the Ming dynasty as a place of worshipping the lights from heaven.
Tiān-ān-mén in Beijing. A picture of Mao Ze-Dong is displayed in the middle. The Chinese sentences are: “long live the People’s Republic of China and the Unification of the Peoples of the World.”
The Chinese Communist Party used the symbol of the city gate to demonstrate its link to the Ming dynasty, the light and the unification of all humans, and eventually to the belief of light worshipping and the Freemasonry.
The Unification of Light Worshippers in the US and China
New World Order
The People’s Republic of China is the second country ever established by a Freemasonry and the light worshippers. After a congressional meeting with the brethren of the Freemasonry in China, the Masonic lodges decided to hand-over the power to the Chinese Communist Party and leave China. This is another move of camouflage: they need to make China the main destination of attraction to all of the communists around the world, and later finish them without getting noticed by the international society. The movement includes:
The Korean war, a joint US-China campaign to kill the domestic communists from both countries, as well as the royalists in the Korean peninsula.
The anti-rightist campaign (反右运动) between 1957 and 1959, the purpose is to purge the communists from overseas.
The Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, to eliminate the royalists and the residues of the Manchus.
It is important to keep this in mind: though China has defined itself as a communist country, it has had a war with each of its neighboring communist or socialist countries: the Soviet Union, the Viet Cong, and even India. Its real enemy is communism.
A Masonic brother, Mao Ze-Dong and the communist Nikita Khrushchev
In 1964, aided by the experts secretly provided by the United States, the Chinese Communist Party obtained its first nuclear weapon. This signifies a secret joint-force between the two Freemasonry countries in the establishment of the New World Order. They planned to limit the total population of the world to less than 500 million and convert all of the remaining human beings to their common religion: the worship of light.
In 1969, right after its anti-rightist campaign and during the Cultural Revolution, China realized that it is the right time to start a war against the communists in the Soviet Union to eliminate the communists hosted by the Soviet Union. A border conflict along the Amur River in Manchuria and Tielieketi in Xinjiang quickly escalated into a total conflict. The Sino-Soviet conflict was continued by the Sino-Vietnamese war.
Nixon meeting Mao
In 1972, Richard Nixon visited China and met with Mao Ze-Dong. During a toast in the Hall of the People of Beijing, Nixon commented:
It is not our common beliefs that have brought us together here, but our common interests and our common hopes. The interest that each of us has to maintain our independence and the security of our peoples, and the hope that each of us has to build a New World Order.
A joint force of the light worshippers in China and the United States has officially been announced by the presidents of both countries.
The Worship of Light in China
One very important message lies in the name of the Chinese Communist Party: the gòng-chǎn dǎng (共产党), which literally means the Party of Co-Productions. The meaning of the word “communism” emphasizes the formation of a community. However, the Chinese name of the Communist Party is completely irrelevant to the concept. This has been a neglected fact for a very long time by observers from outside of China.
Also, If you compare the word with the name of the Freemasonry gòng-jì huì (共济会), which literally means the Society of Collaborations. Even as non-Chinese speakers, the readers might notice a common glyph: gòng (共), which means “together, total, collaboration” in the Chinese language. Therefore, if you put the names of the two societies together, you will realize that you have obtained a parallel construction that played an important role in the Chinese language. Usually, parallel constructions are used as incantations in Chinese mystical rituals.
But God has put the body together, giving greater honor to the parts that lacked it,so that there should be no division in the body, but that its parts should have equal concern for each other.If one part suffers, every part suffers with it; if one part is honored, every part rejoices with it.
Now you are the body of Christ, and each one of you is a part of it.
Corinthians 12:22-27
Also, the propaganda used by the Chinese communist party always features the worship of light. One iconic propaganda poster
Mao Ze-Dong is the Burning Sun in the Heart of Revolutionary People around the World
compared Mao Ze-Dong to the burning sun. In the poster, people from all over the world are receiving lights from Mao Ze-Dong. This is a clear message: Mao Ze-Dong is one of the successors of the Eye of Providence, also known as the all-seeing eye of God.
Eye of Providence
The Eye of Providence symbolizes the all-knowing God and more importantly, the worshippers of light. An interesting observation is that, in the early Masonic version of this image, the light around the eye is partially covered by a cloud. In the Mao Ze-Dong version, the rays are radiated from all around his image. This symbolizes the completion of the New World Order and the enhancement of human rationality.
And he is the head of the body, the church: who is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead; that in all things he might have the preeminence.
Colossians 1:18
For decades, as a technologically advanced country, China has been installing devices all over its territory and has been upgrading the system to ensure its residents receive the lights or the messages (Hebrew: מודיעין) of the all-mighty God. These devices include but are not limited to:
A test version Dong-Fang-Hong I satellite, which broadcasts from the low-earth orbit, the message is a song that compares Mao Ze-Dong to the rising sun.
The Dong-Fang-Hong I Satellite
Beidou Satellite Constellation: a final version of the broadcast system from the space, consists of 35 satellites disguised as a global positioning system. Important message: the Beidou system is a parallel system to the GPS system launched by the United States. Upon the arrival of the MaitreyaBuddha or the Messiah, the system launched by both countries will be utilized to emit the light and broadcast the Final Gospel to the world.
Beidou Satellites
5G telecommunication system: this is an extremely dangerous system since its main components are installed right above the ground instead of in the orbits. This means it will have a few thousand times more transmit power compared to the satellite constellations. Through Huawei Inc. of China, this system is being installed in every city, every farm, along every road all over the world. It was conjectured that upon the arrival of Maitreya or the Messiah, the 5G system will radiate the light to the residents in the main human settlements. All other humans, including the nomads in Tibet, the Middle East, and Africa, will receive the light from the satellites.
5G Telecommunication Tower
If you believe that the 5G telecommunication towers are direct causes of the COVID-19 plague, you are wrong. What I would like to reveal here is an astonishing fact: COVID-19 are nano-robots and will serve as the receivers of the light, emitted either from the 5G towers or from the satellites. It will stay in your body. China and the United States will make sure EVERY single human being on the earth has coronavirus in their body, and could never be removed.
Those whom the nano-robots decided unsuitable of receiving the light will be killed!
The Origin of COVID-19 and “the Light”
1918 Spanish Flu
Time goes back to 10 October 1911 in Wuhan, the first city where the uprising against the Manchu Empire. A joint command headquarters of the Freemasonry and the Hung Society was established in Wuchang, one of the member cities of the Wuhan municipality. A strain of a mysterious virus was developed at the Tong-Ji Hospital of Wuhan. The Tong-Ji Hospital was established by a brother of the Freemasonry, Dr. Erich Paulun from Vorpommern together with Dr. Oscar von Schab. Many of their team members participated in the development of biochemical weapons in World War I for Germany. The name “tóng-jì” is a synonym to “gòng-jì“, the Chinese name of the Freemasonry. The character 同 (tóng) and 共 (gòng) both mean “unification, together” (in modern Chinese there is a word 共同 gòng-tóng).
The virus was first released by members of the Hung Society as a biological weapon against the Manchus. However, the virus was later found to be sensitive to the telegraph signals and some scientists from the Freemasonry realized there is a potential to control the virus by the telecommunication systems around the world. After the start of World War I, through the International Concession in Wuhan, the Freemasonry has been monitoring the deaths of the royalists in Europe, and later in January 1918, they decided to gradually release the virus and control it through the international telegraph network, which was later known as the Spanish Flu of 1918.
According to the historians, no one knows from where did the 1918 Spanish Flu start and later identified the flu as H1N1 influenza. However, despite the poor sanitary condition in China in 1918, according to a few biologists, China was the country least affected by the 1918 Spanish Flu. This is an indication that the Chinese have acquired herd immunity way before the outbreak of the pandemic in Europe and the United States. In fact, this is due to the gradual release of the virus by Freemasonry scientists during the Chinese revolution, and the virus is known as the coronavirus today.
The Mechanism of Controlling Coronavirus with Electromagnetic Waves
Structure of the coronavirus
After the invention of the first electronic computer by the Jewish brother of the Freemasonry, John von Neumann, the study on the 1918 virus was accelerated due to the increase of computation power. The structure of the coronavirus 229E and coronavirus OC43 was understood in the 1960s by secret labs in Wuhan and all around the world. The mechanism is clear to us now:
The “spikes” serve as the receptors for the electromagnetic wave.
The helix structure, later known as RNA, generates vibration of a certain frequency, which could be programmed by editing the RNA sequence.
The RNA sequence in the helix structure also serves as “the messenger” between the virus and the human body.
More researches were conducted by Freemasonry labs all around the world. Test launches of man-made satellites to control the virus, which had been already embedded in the human bodies all around the world, were initiated by the United States, China, and Israel. However, due to the weak transmit power of these satellites, nuclear explosions are also detonated by major powers as an auxiliary method to generate γ-radiation, a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiations.
Internet, Portable Phones, Personal Computers, and Coronavirus
To implement the key belief in the New World Order,
there should be no division in the body
and to eliminate the remaining royalists and communists, a wide-ranging construction of telecommunication devices has to be planned by the Chinese Communist Party and the Freemasonry. This lead to the invention of personal computers, the internet and portable phones in the mid to late 20th century. Meanwhile, new strains of the human coronavirus are being developed in the secret labs that belonged to the Chinese Communist Party in Wuhan, now known as the Wuhan Institute of Virology.
The cell phone towers are being installed and constantly being upgraded all over the world. When the 3G network was finally introduced in 2003, a 3-stage plan of the installation of different “coronavirus nano-robots” launched: each time the telecommunication network is upgraded, a new software carried by the coronavirus nano-robots will be installed to all the human beings on earth to adapt to the new frequency.
Therefore, the Chinese Communist Party branch in Guangzhou (where the first Freemasonry was established in China) released the SARS strain of the coronavirus in 2003. As a part of the second stage plan, the US government released the virus disguised as the “swine flu” in 2009. The final and the most important stage of the software is called CoV-2, developed in a joint research project lead by the Wuhan Institute of Virology and University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. The first-round research result was published in the paper
Menachery, Vineet D., et al. “A SARS-like cluster of circulating bat coronaviruses shows potential for human emergence.” Nature medicine 21.12 (2015): 1508.
However, the plan of releasing this virus to the public has shown a lot of premonitions in both the United States and China, including:
In July 2019, a virus research facility in Fort Detrick was shut down due to “safety concerns”.
In September 2019, patients suffering from pneumonia of unknown causes. The disease was later identified as “e-cigarette or vaping product use associated lung injury”, or EVALI.
During the 2019-2020 flu season in the United States, around 14,000 deaths have been recorded.
A researcher in the Wuhan Institute of Virology, known as Shi ZL, was found to have researched on the transmission of bat coronavirus to humans.
In 2017, the CDC of Wuhan acquired around 600 bats as hosts from southwestern China. Staff exposure was reported by a whistleblower from China.
Two graduate students from the Wuhan Institute of Virology, known as Huang YL and Chen QJ, were reported to be hospitalized due to suspected exposure.
In October 2019, 5 participants from the United States of the Military World Games 2019 were hospitalized due to “imported disease” in Wuhan.
In November 2019, the new CoV-2 virus was released. Meanwhile, 5G networks are being developed by Verizon and Huawei all over the world.
The main features of the CoV-2 nano-robot. are:
Most of the infected will not feel anything since most people in the world are neither royalists or communists.
If the infected are below 40, they may only be experiencing mild fever or cough. Humans below 40 have usually not been exposed to any education on communism, and are perfect receivers of the light.
If the infected are above 60, they will be automatically killed through suffocation. Most of the elderlies are sympathizers of communism and they will be no space for them in the New World Order. Most of the modern nobilities are also older than 60.
What Information does “the Light” Carry?
And power was given unto them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth.
Revelations 6:8
The goal of the 3-stage plan, according to the information engraved on the Georgia Guidestones,
Georgia Guidestones, guidelines of the New World Order
is to maintain the world population under 500 million (by immediate death) and to control human reproduction through the light.
Maintain humanity under 500,000,000 in perpetual balance with nature. Guide reproduction wisely — improving fitness and diversity. Unite humanity with a living new language. Rule passion — faith — tradition — and all things with tempered reason. Protect people and nations with fair laws and just courts. Let all nations rule internally resolving external disputes in a world court. Avoid petty laws and useless officials. Balance personal rights with social duties. Prize truth — beauty — love — seeking harmony with the infinite. Be not a cancer on the earth — Leave room for nature — Leave room for nature.
The Georgia Guidestones, Elbert County, GA
The Chinese Communist Party and the Freemasonry will merge and form a final World Government. All aspects of our lives, including the government, education, the legal system, dispute resolution, and the economy will be completely changed. In short, through the installation of the CoV-2 nano-robot to the human body, and the signals carried by the 5G system, there will be no concept of individuals, and human beings will receive orders and instructions directly from the Freemasonry headquarters. We will not maintain our individual consciousness anymore and will operate automatically under the direct control of the nano-robots. The nano-robots developed by the Chinese Communist Party and the Freemasonry are so advanced that it will make us lose our feelings immediately. This is the reason why most of the CoV-2 patients are suffering from smell and taste loss: it is the starting point of losing senses.
In short, if the Chinese Communist Party and the Freemasonry succeeded, human beings will become bees and ants, and the only purpose to live is to serve the light.
Conclusion
The time has come, and there is no way to stop the process. The light worshippers have taken over the world and started this plague. The spreading of the nano-robot cannot be stopped, and we are stepping into the age of Revelations.
出于种种原因，当知乎提出该要求之后，若得不到知乎平台有效回应和合理解释，我决定于2020年1月15日删除自己的全部知乎回答和文章。以前的文章将会以pdf格式在我工作单位的实名机构主页下可见（以色列魏茨曼科学院-Weizmann Institute of Science只有两名数学系博后，找到我非常容易）。
The Manchu language (mnc. manju gisun) is among the first languages in China into which western mathematics and science was translated before the modern era. Initiated by the Kangxi Emperor (康熙/圣祖仁皇帝) of the Qing dynasty, translations of various books including
– Gi ho yuwan ben i bithe, Euclid’s Elements,
– Suwan fa yuwan ben i bithe, lit. elements in arithmetics,
– Bodoro arga I oyonggongge be araha uheri hešen-i bithe, 算法纂要總綱, lit. a complete summary of important methods in arithmetics.
The first 9 chapters of the manuscript Bodoro arga I oyonggongge be araha uheri hešen-i bithe has been scanned and is publicly accessible on the internet. In Tokyo, Inner Mongolia and France, there are three copies of Manchu language translation of Euclid’s Elements, neither of these copies are electronically accessible yet.
The Manchu language has most of the inflecions required by modern mathematics.
Bodoro Arga -i Oyonggongge be Araha Uheri Hešen-i Bithe
It is believed by 1 that the book in the title, abbreviated as BAOAUHB, was edited by Belgian Jesuit priest Antoine Thomas) based on his own book Synopsis mathematica published in 1685 in Douai, France. The book developed basic terminologies, definitions and methods in the Manchu language. I will discuss the mathematical terminologies in the Manchu language developed by Antoine Thomas and his fellow Manchu mathematicians.
Arithmetics in the Manchu Language
Numerical Digits
The Manchu terminology for arithmetics is bodoro arga. The operands of arithmetics are digits and numbers
English
Manchu
digit
oron
number
ton
digit grouping delimiter
tongki
Reading from right to left, the names of each digits are
English
Manchu
zero
untuhun
ones digit
emteli ton
tens digit
juwan -i ton
hundreds digit
tanggū -i ton
thousands digit
minggan -i ton
ten-thousands digit
tumen -i ton
When writing down numerical digits of a number, the following verbs are used
English
Manchu
determining numerical digits
toktombi
putting down notations
gidambi
crossing over, to pass
dulembi
Counting by Groups
The expression “every n numbers” translates to adding a plural suffix -ta/te/to to a number according to its vowel harmony. The linguistic name for this type of numerals is distributive numerals. For example
English
Manchu
each one
emte
every two
juwete
every three
ilata
every fifteen
tofohonto
every twenty
orinta/orita
every forty
dehite
Built-in Multiplicatives and Fractions
Like most other modern languages, the Manchu language carries a method to express multiplicatives and fractions of numerals. For example:
– n times of a number: adding ubu to a cardinal number: emu ubu, juwe ubu, ilan ubu
– single, double, triple, n-layers: adding a suffix -rsu to the root of the numeral: emursu, jursu, ilarsu
– n-times of frequency: use suffix -(g)geri or appending a word mudan or jergi: emgeri=emu mudan=emu jergi
There are two ways to express fractions NUM/DENOM,
DENOM -i NUM
or
DENOM ubu de NUM ubu
The word hontoho is a special word for a half.
Addition nonggime arga
There are two operations in addition, adding each digit and a carrying to the next digit. The verbs for these two operations are
English
Manchu
to add
nonggimbi
to carry
ibebumbi
to carry, add one to a higher digit
wesimbi
to carry, get a one from a higher digit
wasimbumbi
to take away a digit
(oron) gaimbi
Also, adjectives for the previous digit and the next digit are:
English
Manchu
previous (a larger digit), front
julergi
next (a smaller digit), back
amargi
next, up (a larger digit)
dergi
previous (a smaller digit)， down
fejergi
Please note that the meaning of front, back, up and down and previous, next may be different from western or Chinese languages.
There are two ways to say adding A and B
English
Manchu
to add A and B
A, B be ishunde acabumbi/nonggimbi
to add A to B
A de B be nonggimbi
We note that the verb nonggimbi can also mean to translate along some direction in the geometric sense.2
Examples:
Yaya ishunde nonggire ton bifi, dele emke feijile emke arara de, urunakū gese gese salire oron be meni meni dergi fejergi de ishunde teisulebume arabi. Ishunde nonggire de juwan jaluci, emke obufi julergi oron de ibebumbi.
All numbers which would like to be added, writing one on the top, one on the bottom, must layer by layer, write each digit, upper and bottom, correspondingly. If the adding fills up to 10, become one, carry to the next digit.
…jai tere duin jang, ilan jang ni ton de, neneme ibebuhe emke nonggibure jakade, tuttu ilaci oron de jakūn seme arahabi.
…and now adding 4 jang with 3 jang, since adding previously carried one, thus the third digit write 8.
Subtraction ekiyembure arga
The verb for to (use to) subtract is the active form -be ekiyembumbi. Please note that there are two different voices for Manchu verbs engaging the infix -bu:
Voice
English
Manchu
active
to (use to) do
-be VERB-bu-SUFFIX
passive
to be done by
-de VERB-bu-SUFFIX
These two constructions are distinguished by the cases of the indirect objects. However, the BAOAUHB uses particles “according to”songkoi and “inside” dorgici to reverse the meaning
English
Manchu
Subtract B from A
A -i dorgici B be ekiyembumbi
Subtract A from B
A -i songkoi B be ekiyembumbi
The carry for subtraction uses the verb (emke be) gajimbi or *wasimbumbi. Also, in the formula A-B, B is called *ekiyembure ton. This is consistent with the active voice in the verb ekiyembumbi.
Examples
Yaya ton be ekiyembure de, bisire ton be dergi de faidame arafi ekiyembure ton be meni meni oron fejile arafi ekiyembumbi. Aikabade teisulehe oron i ton komso, ekiyembure de tesurakū oci, dergi oron i emke be gajifi teisu oron i juwan obufi ekiyembumbi. Ekiyembufi funcehe ton be meni meni oron de teisulebume fejergi de faidame arambi.
Subtracting each digit, subtract the arranged existing digits on the top, each written digits of the subtrahend on the bottom. If it happens that the number in the digit is small, not suffice for subtraction, bring 1 from the upper digit, becoming 10 in the corresponding digit, and subtract. Write the left-over number from subtraction in each corresponding digit below.
Multiplication kamcime arga
The verb for to multiply is kamcimbi. However, the book mentioned
Emu oron i bodorongge be teherebumbi sembi. Oron labdungge be kamcime bodombi sembi.
Multiplying one digit is teherebumbi, multiplying multiple digits is kamcime bodombi.
The original meaning of the verb teherebumbi is to balance out, make even. 3 There are a few other ways to say to multiply A,B:
English
Manchu
Product of A,B
A,B be ishunde teherebumbi/ kamcimbi/ teherebume kamcimbi
A-times of B
A be B de (teherebume) kamcimbi
Please pay extra attention on the case inflection to A and B.
Example
Yaya juwe ton be ishunde kamcime bodoki seci, urunakū juwe ton be oron teisulebume dergi fejergi de arambi. Tumen minggan tanggū juwan udu ocibe, jang cy’ cun fon li ocibe, yan jiha fon eli ocibe, gemu oron teisulebume dergi fejergi de arafi, fejergi uju oron i ton be dergi i oron ci aname emu oron i emgi teherebume bodome, baha ton be meni meni oron de teisulebume araha manggi, geli fejergi jai oron i ton be dergi geren oron i emgi teherebume bodombi. bodofi baha ton be inu meni meni oron de teisulebume arambi.
Multiplying each digit, under all circumstances, write two numbers, one up and one down, matching corresponding digits. In case of several hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, or jang, chi, cun, fun, li, or liang qian fen li, all written in the form of one up and down, matching corresponding digits. Multiplying the lower first digit-times of the upper digits in turn, write each obtained number digit-by-digit in the corresponding digit. After that, again, multiply the second digit-times of the upper digit together. Write each corresponding digit of the obtained number.
Fejergi ton udu oron bici, gemu ere songkoi bodombi, bodome wajiha manggi, baha ton be julergi nonggire arga songkoi acabumbi.
Division faksalame arga
The verb for division is faksalambi. However, like multiplications, there are two different verbs for one-digit division and multiple-digit divisions:
Emu oron ningge be nikebumbi sembi. Oron labdungge be faksalambi sembi.
Single-digit division is called nikebumbi, and multiple-digit division is called faksalambi.
Please pay attention to the passive infix -bu- for the dividend.
There are a few ways to read the formula A/B 4:
English
Manchu
B divide by A
A be baitalafi B be dendembi
Divide B by A
A-i songkoi B be dendembi
Divide A by B
A be B -i faksalambi
1/2 of A
A be dulin bukdambi
The residue of the division uses the verb funcembi:
Duibuleci, 13873 sere ton be 256 -i faksalame bodofi, 54 sere ton baha manggi, kemuni 49 funcehe.
For example, 13873 divided by 256, then we get 54, and yet with residue 49.
Example
Faksalame bodoro arga, faksalabura ton be faidame araha manggi, faksalara ton be faksalabure ton i dergi de faidame arara de, juwe ton i uju oron be ishunde teisulebume arambi.
The method of division, after we arranged the dividend, we write the divisor above the dividend. We match the first digit of the two numbers.
Faksalara ton i uju jai oron i ton, aikabade faksalabure ton i uju jai oron i ton ci amba oci faksalara ton be emu oron wasimbume arambi, bodofi baha ton i uju oron be faksalara ton i dubei oron i dergi de teisulebume arambi.
The first two digits of the divisor, if larger than the first two digits of the dividend, we go down(write one more) on another digit of the divisor. We write matching the obtained calculated number’s first digit above the divisor’s ending digit.
Miscellaneous Expressions in Arithmetics
The following table gives other phrases and terminologies required by arithmetics: 5
English
Manchu
A>B
A, B ci amba ombi
A<B
A, B ci ajige ombi
A=B
A,B ishunde teherembi
\sqrt{A}
A -i tob durbejengge -i fulehe
\sqrt[3]{A}
A -i duin durbjengge -i fulehe6 or A -i durbejengge beyei fulehe
There exists definitions and algorithms related to Euclid’s algorithm for \gcd, prime numbers etc.910:
Euclid’s Algorithm
ajige ton de wacihiyame lak seme kemnebucime wacihiyabuci ojoro teherehekū juwe amba ton bifi, ere ajige ton be bairengge
Two larger numbers not being completely divided by thesmaller number, get the smaller number.
Transitivity of Divisibility
Yaya ajige ton, amba ton be wacihiyame lak seme kemnecime wacihiyaci ojorongge bifi, ere amba ton, geli ele amba ton be wacihiyame lak seme kemnecime wacihiyaci oci, da ajige ton uthai ere ele amba ton be wacihiyame lak seme kemnecime wacihiyaci ombi.
any small number, completely dividing the larger number, (and) that larger number completely divides another larger number, then the other larger number can be completely divided by the original smaller number.
Prime number
Emu ci tulgiyen, wacihiyame lak seme kemnereme wacihiyara ton akūngge
A number which cannot be divided by other numbers, except 1.
Composite Number
Emu ci tulgiyen wacihiyame lak seme kemnere ton bisirengge
A number which can be divided by other numbers, except 1.
Coprime
Ede tede wacihiyame lak seme kemnereme wacihiyara ton akūngge
Doesn’t exist a number which divides this and that number
Have a common divisor
Ede tede wacihiyame lak seme kemnereme wacihiyara ton bisirengge
Exist a number which divides this and that number.
Today Professor Héctor J. Sussmann and I discussed about whether the ancient Chinese know the earth is a sphere. A primitive literature search indicates that, the modern model of earth was introduced to the Chinese scholars by the Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci. However, Professor Sussmann raised the question that, there has to be some people who realized the earth is spherical either a priori or a posteriori. Moreover, if those knowledge was unknown to the ancient Chinese, we would like to discuss about the possible reasons.
After some literature search on the ancient Chinese literature, the answer to the question seems to be more subtle. In this blog article, I would like to discuss whether the ancient Chinese astronomers had knowledge about the following modern astronomical facts:
The basic celestial bodies, e.g. the sun and the moon, are objects. They follow periodic orbital motions.
The sun and the moon have spherical shapes.
The light of the moon comes from reflection of the light from the sun. The solar/lunar eclipses are caused by obstruction of light.
The earth is spherical. The measurement and calculation on earth and sky should use spherical trigonometry.
Correct projection methods should be used in cartography.
These knowledge is introduced in the following ancient Chinese books in chronological order.
The Book of Rites Compiled by Dai: Zengzi Talking about the Sky is Round 大戴礼记 曾子天圆 300 BCE-30 BCE
A Vague Early Philosophy of the Shape of Universe 單居離問於曾子曰：“天圓而地方者，誠有之乎？”曾子曰：“離！而聞之，云乎！”單居離曰：“弟子不察，此以敢問也。”曾子曰：“天之所生上首，地之所生下首，上首謂之圓，下首謂之方，如誠天圓而地方，則是四角之不揜也”“且來！吾語汝。參嘗聞之夫子曰：‘天道曰圓，地道曰方，方曰幽而圓曰明；明者吐氣者也，是故外景；幽者含氣者也，是故內景，故火日外景，而金水內景，吐氣者施而含氣者化，是以陽施而陰化也。陽之精氣曰神，陰之精氣曰靈；神靈者，品物之本也，而禮樂仁義之祖也，而善否治亂所由興作也。
Danju Li asked Zengzi:”Is it real that sky is round and earth is square?”
…
Zengzi said:”Sky is the upper end, and earth is the lower end. The upper end is round, and the lower end is square. If the sky is really round, where do you tuck the corner of the square?”
Zengzi said again:”Come and let me tell you. Confucious said, the rule of the sky is round, and the rule of earth is square. Square is dim and round is bright, the bright will produce energy, which creates the external shadow. The dim contains energy, which creates internal shadow. The fire is external, and gold and water are internal. The producer give, and the container digests it, the same way as yang gives and yin digests. The essence of yang is shen, and the essence of yin is ling. The shen-ling is the fundamental of everything, and creates the human virtues, and tells us whether the society functions well or not.” Comment: Despite my strange translation, this part is still very strange, and it is very hard to make sense of it from a modern point of view.
Treatise on Astronomy, Book of Han 汉书-天文志 23 CE
Knowledge of the summer/winter solstices
中道者，黄道，一曰光道。光道北至东井，去北极近；南至牵牛，去北极远；东至角，西至娄…日，阳也。阳用事则日进而北，昼进而长，阳胜，故为温暑；阴用事则日退而南，昼退而短，阴胜，故为凉寒也。故日进为暑，退为寒。
English: The ecliptic, north up to the Gemini, close to the North Pole; south down to the Altair, far from the North Pole; east to the Virgo, west to the Aries…The sun is yang, if yang is in action, the sun marches to the north, and the day is longer, and yang wins, causing the warm weather; If yin is in action, the sun retreats to the south…. Comment: It seems that they have a preliminary understanding of the cycle of seasons, which is caused by the distance between the North Pole and the sun. We should notice that the North Pole mentioned here is the north pole of the sky.
Zhoubi Suanjing (lit. Book of Calculation on Sundials from Zhou Dynasty)周髀算经 Compilation of Problems 1046 BCE-220 CE
(Incorrect) Measurement of distance between sun and earth 若求邪至日者，以日下為句，日高為股，句股各自乘，并而開方除之，得邪至日，從髀所旁至日所，十萬里。
English: if one ask, how far is the sun, one should let (日下) be one side, (日高) be the other side, square each side, take the sum and then the square root, one get the distance of the sun…100 thousand miles. Comment: They have realized that the sun is an object far away, and the distance can be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem.
Considering the Northern Tropic as the North Pole 故春秋分之日中，光之所照北極下，夜半日光之所照亦南至極，此日夜分之時也。
English: …at noon of spring/autumn equinox, sun shines directly above the North Pole, and at midnight the sun shines upon the South Pole. This is the day when day and night have equal length.
The four Poles are the four edges of the world 凡日月運行，四極之道。極下者，其地高人所居六萬里，滂沱四隤而下。天之中央，亦高四旁六萬里。
English: in terms of the motion of sun and moon, they follow the four poles. Each pole is 60,000 miles higher than where human live, where water flows down like waterfalls. The center of the sky is also 60,000 miles high.
You don’t know what is norther than the north
過北而往者，未之或知。或知者，或疑其可知，或疑其難知，此言上聖不學而知之。
English: whoever goes past north, they haven’t known yet where they are heading at. Should any people know, some might question whether it is understandable, or question if it is too hard to understand. This is to say, the saints knows with out learning. Comment: They seems to understand that there are something past the north pole. However, it seems to contradict the waterfall theory introduced above.
Interpretation of the Five Books 五經通義 刘向 by Liu Xiang 77 BCE-6 BCE
Theories on solar and lunar eclipses 月揜日光，故日食；日夺月光，故月食…二体相远，月近而日远。自人望之，则月之所映者广。故日光不复能见，而日食既也。日食者，实是月映之也。但日之所在，则月体不见。
English: The moon deprives the sunlight, and this is the solar eclipse. The sun deprives the moonlight, this is the lunar eclipse…The moon is closer and sun is farther, from our viewpoint, the moon covers a larger area of land, and the sunshine is no longer visible, which is the total eclipse. So the solar eclipse is in fact because of the shadow of moon, but the moon is invisible where the sun is.
Astronomy I, Vol 11, Book of Jin 晋书 卷十一 天文一 648 CE
This book talks about at least 5 different cosmology theories.
Theory I: Hat-shaped sky covering a curved shaped earth 其言天似蓋笠，地法覆槃，天地各中高外下。北極之下為天地之中，其地最高，而滂沲四隤，三光隱映，以為晝夜。
English: which says the sky is like a hat, and the earth is like a plate. The sky and the earth has a higher center, and a lower rim. Under the north pole is the center of the sky and earth, which has the highest elevation. All other sides has water flowing down, where the lights shine and dim, which forms the day and night.
Comment: It seems that they know the earth is at least not flat.
Theory II: Infinity of the universe and the celestial objects are “floating” 天了無質，仰而瞻之，高遠無極，眼瞀精絕，故蒼蒼然也。譬之旁望遠道之黃山而皆青，俯察千仞之深谷而窈黑，夫青非真色，而黑非有體也。日月眾星，自然浮生虛空之中，其行其止皆須氣焉。 English: The sky is empty, if you look up, it is so high, without any border, and you cannot see its end. That’s why it looks so dark.It’s like a grass-covered mountain is all green, and a deep valley is dark. The color is not real. The sun and moon floats in the empty space, the motion is driven by qi(a driving power postulated by Chinese).
Theory III: The sky and earth should have the same shape 天高窮於無窮，地深測於不測。天確乎在上，有常安之形；地塊焉在下，有居靜之體。當相覆冒，方則俱方，圓則俱圓，無方圓不同之義也。
English: The height of sky is infinite, and the thickness of earth is infinite. The sky is stably up, and the earth is stably down. So when they cover each other, if one is square, so must the other; if one is round, so must the other. It is impossible that they take a different shape.
Theory IV: The sky is round like an egg, water is floating in its interior, above which the flat earth floats 天如雞子，地如雞中黃，孤居於天內，天大而地小。天表裏有水，天地各乘氣而立，載水而行。周天三百六十五度四分度之一，又中分之，則半覆地上，半繞地下，故二十八宿半見半隱，天轉如車轂之運也。
English: The sky is like an egg, the earth is like the yolk, lying in the sky, and the sky is large while the earth is small. The sky is filled with water, and the sky and earth stands from the power of qi, traveling over the water. The sky is divided into of 365 and 1/4 degrees. If we divide the sky into two equal pieces, then half covers above the earth, and half lies below the earth. So half of the constellations are visible while another half is not, because they rotate like a wheel.
Comment: Though “yolk” might indicate that the earth is round, but I’m still skeptical to that because the concept of “up” and “down” is used to describe the earth.
Ling Xian(lit. The Astronomic Laws) 靈憲 张衡 78 CE-139 CE
Where the moonlight comes from and the reason of the lunar eclipse 故月光生於日之所照，魄生於日之所蔽，當日則光盈，就日則光盡也。衆星被燿，因水轉光。當日之衝，光常不合者，蔽於地也。是謂闇虛。在星星微，月過則食。
English: Therefore the moonlight emerges from the shining of sun, the shadow comes from sunshine being obstructed. When it is opposite to the sun, it’s the full moon; when it is facing the sun, it’s the new moon. The light of stars come from water. When it should be the full moon but it’s not, the reason is that the light being blocked by the earth. When star crosses the shadow of the earth, the star dims; when moon crosses the shadow of the earth, the lunar eclipse happens.During the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese astronomers seems to realize that the earth is somewhat not flat, and a different kind of trigonometry should be used.
Vol 35, Old Book of Tang 旧唐书 卷三十五 600 CE-900 CE
They realized there is something wrong with the assumption that the earth is flat.
大率五百二十六里二百七十步，影差二寸有餘。而先儒以為王畿千里，影移一寸，又乖舛而不同矣。
English: The distance is 526 miles and 270 yards, the difference of lengths of shadows of the sundial is 2 inches. However previously people believe that if you travel 1000 miles on the kings land, the shadow moves by 1 inch. This is very different and absurd.
樞極之遠近不同，則黃道之軌景固隨而遷變矣。
English: The position of the ecliptic changes when the direction to the pole of axis changes.
The calculation on earth based on Pythagorean theorem is wrong in large scales
古人所以恃句股之術，謂其有征於近事。顧未知目視不能遠，浸成微分之差，其差不已，遂與術錯。
English: The ancient people depends on Pythagorean theorem, because it measures short distances very well. What people do not know is, the error on large scale can make a difference. If you don’t correct it, there will be a mistake.
It is unnecessary to talk about what the shape of earth and sky really is. 原人所以步圭景之意，將欲節宣和氣，輔相物宜，而不在於辰次之周徑；其所以重歷數之意，將欲敬授人時，欽若乾象，而不在於渾、蓋之是非。若乃述無稽之談於視聽之所不及，則君子闕疑而不質，仲尼慎言而不論也…由是而觀，則王仲任、葛稚川之徒，區區于異同之辨，何益人倫之化哉！
English: The reason why people do astronomical observations is to record the solar terms, which corresponds to the growth of creatures, not to measure the distance and radius of celestial orbits. The reason why calendar is important is to teach people the measurement of time, not to argue about which cosmology theory is correct. These nonsense cannot be proved by sensory knowledge, and this makes good people and confucious speak very cautiously on this topic. Therefore these two astronomers are confined to arguments about the correct cosmology model, and this is useless to the people.
The original planar coordinate of the sky is wrong
今誠以為蓋天，則南方之度漸狹；以為渾天，則北方之極浸高。此二者，又渾、蓋之家未能有以通其說也。
English: I believe that if the sky covers the flat earth, then it cannot explain why the distance on the southern sky are becoming narrower if you move further south. If you consider the sky like an egg and earth like yolk, then the north pole is higher if you move further north. None of these two theories can fully explain these phenomena.
Vol 31, New Book of Tang 新唐书 Around 1060 CE
The table of latitude with distance on earth
凡晷差，冬夏不同，南北亦異，先儒一以里數齊之，遂失其實。今更為《覆矩圖》，南自丹穴，北暨幽都，每極移一度，輒累其差…
English: The difference of shadow of a sundial depends on the season and your position. You cannot have a universal rule of the relation between the difference of shadow of sundial and the distance on the earth. Now I am making a chart between these two cities, and measure the distance on the earth when the North Pole moves by each degree.
Dream Pool Essays, by Shen Kuo 梦溪笔谈 沈括 1086 CE-1093 CE
Shape of the sun and the moon: they are spherical
日月之形如丸。何以知之？以月盈虧可驗也。月本無光，猶銀丸，日耀之乃光耳。光之初生，日在其傍，故光側而所見才如鉤；日漸遠，則斜照，而光稍滿。如一彈丸，以粉塗其半，側視之，則粉處如鉤；對視之，則正圓，此有以知其如丸也。日、月，氣也，有形而無質，故相直而無礙。
English: The sun and the moon are round, why? You can check by the moon phase. The moon does not shine itself, like a silver ball, it only shines when brightened by the sun. Originally when the lighting starts, the sun is on the side of the moon, so you can only see the light on the side, which gives the shape of a crescent. When the sun moves further…..if you paint half of the moon and see it from the side, it is crescent shaped; if you face it, it is disk shaped…The sun and moon are qi, i.e. energies, so they can pass each other without obstruction. Comment: It is interesting that the author did not believe the moon is solid. But he guessed the material of the sun correctly.
黃道與月道，如二環相疊而小差。凡日月同在一度相遇，則日為之蝕；正一度相對，則月為小虧。雖同一度，而月道與黃道不相近，自不相侵；同度而又近黃道、月道之交。日月相值，乃相淩掩
English: the orbit of moon and orbit of sun intersect with each other with a small difference. If the sun and the moon meet at the same degree, then a solar eclipse happens….these two orbits are far from each other, and so the two bodies do not collide…
Vol 48, History of Yuan(The Mongol Empire) 元史 1370 CE
苦来亦阿儿子，汉言地理志也。其制以木为圆球，七分为水，其色绿，三分为土地，其色白。画江河湖海，脉络贯串于其中。画作小方井，以计幅圆之广袤、道里之远近。
English:(Jamal ad-Din) brought alkurat al’ardia, in Chinese the record of earth, is a wooden ball with 70% color green, standing for water, and other 30% colored white, standing for the land. The water bodies are painted on the sphere. They use grids to measure distance.
苦来亦撒麻，汉言浑天图也。其制以铜为丸，斜刻日道交环度数于其腹，刻二十八宿形于其上。外平置铜单环，刻周天度数，列于十二辰位以准地。而侧立单环二，一结于平环之子午，以铜丁象南北极，一结于平环之卯酉，皆刻天度。即浑天仪而不可运转窥测者也。
English: (Jamal ad-Din) brought kharitat alssama, in Chinese the map of sky, uses bronze ball engraved with ecliptic intersecting the latitudes, together with the constellations. A ring was set around the ball with engraved degrees, standing for the zodiac. On the side there are two rings, one is the meridian, the other is the equator, and two bronze nails at north and south poles. All rings have degrees on them…
Vol 25, History of Ming 明史 1645 CE-1789 CE
其言地圓也，曰地居天中…中國當赤道之北，故北極常現，南極常隱。南行二百五十裡則北極低一度，北行二百五十裡則北極高一度。東西亦然。亦二百五十裡差一度也。以周天度計之，知地之全周為九萬裡也…凡北極出地之度同，則四時寒暑靡不同。若南極出地之度與北極出地之度同，則其晝夜永短靡不同。惟時令相反…兩地經度相去三十度，則時刻差一辰。若相距一百八十度，則晝夜相反焉。其說與《元史》札馬魯丁地圓之旨略同。
English: it is said that the earth is round, lying in the middle of the universe…China is north to the equator, so the northern star is always visible, and the southern star is always invisible. If you travel south 250 miles, then the northern star will lower by 1 degree, and vice versa. It works the same way if you travel east and west. If measured around the sky, the perimeter of earth is 90 thousand miles…same degree from the north pole, then the time is different. The season in the southern hemisphere of a place the same degree in the north is opposite. The longitude changes by 30 degrees, the time changes by 2 hours. If 180 degree opposite then the day and night is reversed. This is the same theory in the History of Yuan, the theory of Jamal ad-Din. Comment: Here the model of earth is very close to the modern one.
38.3927,-119.6740: Boundary between Sierra Nevada and the basin and range province. Mono Lake is visible on the left side with the Paoha Island.
2. Right hand side of the picture: Sierra Nevada, left hand side is the basin and range province with Mono Lake.
3. Flying above 38.5358 -118.5386 on US Highway 95. Moho Mountain, NV in the basin and range province.
4. The Soda Springs Valley near Luning, NV. A dried streambed.
5. 38.6220 -117.8071, a dried riverbed in the desert of Nevada, with basin and range landscape.
6. Colorado Springs, CO
7. Columbus, OH
8. 39.0675 -114.8775: a valley near Hamels Peak, NV
10. 39.0411 -109.1952: the Westwater Canyon, UT
11. New Jersey Turnpike
12. The Interstate 78 and NJ Transit bridge
13. Mono Lake
14. Yosemite National Park
15. Interstate 580 and Governor Edmund G Brown California Aqueduct near the start of the Coast Range. The city is Tracy, CA, and the facility in the left side is the Costco distribution warehouse.
16. The Coast Range above Site 300 of the Federal Government Facility.
17. The salt ponds and landfills near Fremont, CA
18. The San Mateo Bridge which carries the CA Highway 92.
I paid a visit to the Shearer Hill Farm near the mountainous town Halifax VT, as a momentous trip for my last spring break during my 5 years as a PhD student.
Early spring in Les Verts Monts, where sunshine, rain and snow come together
In my simple and condensed life, maple sugar has been my morning refreshment for many years. Each little, expensive bottle of sweet syrup has made the starting of each day more expectable.
The sweet syrup made from the sap of sugar maple is a real mystery to me:palatable sap from a tree grown in a northern land, harvesting during the coldest season, performed as an Algonquian tradition, with a long history unknown by the Eurasian settlers, but was passed down generation by generation. Therefore I am very glad that the owner of our B&B, the Bill & Patti Pusey family, agreed to show us the production procedure of this legendary food beloved in Canada and northern United States.
The sap of maple is collected from sugar maple, acer saccharum, native to eastern Canada and northeastern United States. Sap from maple is a water-like liquid, dripping slowly from inside of the tree, and has only a light flavor. The sweetness of maple sap can only be felt a few seconds after tasted behind your tongue.
The sap is collected in a sugar house, built in the woods. The sweet smell of vapeur, mixed with the burning smell of woods, slowly spreads in the snowy forest of mid-March, and this is where Bill Pusey produces their maple sugar.
Bill and Dave has been working together for many years. Bill Pusey worked as a manager in a Hess Oil station in Long Island, NY. His family relocated to Halifax, VT 45 years ago in order to give their life a new start. In the day I visited, Bill takes care of the operation of the traditional evaporator, and Dave works hard to make the temperature of the burning fire steady.
The atmosphere in the sugar house reminds me of the sauna houses common to Nordics. The vapor in the sugar house is thick, with a scent of winter and love. Bill told us a joke between the maple sugar makers, that there has been too much sugar in the vapor that nobody with diabetes could be allowed to the sugar house.
Bill Pusey explaining the operation of evaporator
Dave the furnaceman
Bill Pusey, owner of Shearer Hill Farm B&B
The sap has to be vaporized for at least one hour to remove the unwanted water: roughly 40 gallons of sap would yield 1 gallon of maple syrup. The sap drains continuously from the pipes connected to the tank outside of the sugar house, flowing into the four-chamber evaporator. In each stage, the sap thickens, and ready to be poured over the pancakes.
Bill pours the syrup into a woolen filter, removing the precipitated minerals in maple sap
Besides pancakes and waffles, a lot of creations has been made in the recipes containing maple sugar: wine, pickled fruits, jams…
Bessel function is the solutions to an important class of differential equations:
This equation has a regular singularity at . Its fundamental set of solutions are usually denoted as and , which are called BesselJ and BesselY in Mathematica.
Bessel functions are -periodic solutions for the standing waves on a plane. Each harmonic correspond to a , where is an integer.
In representation theory, is generated by three angular momentum operators , with the Casimir element of the universal enveloping algebra . If are represented as infinitesimal rotations on , then the solution of the differential equations:
. Its fundamental set of solutions are usually denoted as 
and 
, which are called BesselJ and BesselY in Mathematica.
-periodic solutions for the standing waves on a plane. Each harmonic correspond to a 
, where 
is an integer.
is generated by three angular momentum operators 
, with the Casimir element of the universal enveloping algebra 
. If 
, then the solution 
of the differential equations:
Zhuohui Zhang 